BODY and SOUL

Address to South Shore Skeptics
Sunday, February 20, 2000
Dr. D. A. Rickards

Body and Soul...Soul and Body.   Are they one and the same or are they different?  Literature is replete with a hundred different uses for words like "Body" and "Soul" but most people would be hard pressed to give a precise definition.  What do we mean by words like these?  Who knows?  Even the so-called "spiritual authorities" disagree on any exact meaning.

Let’s take a few examples.  During the American revolution an Englishman, Thomas Paine, wrote a series of appeals called "The Crisis Papers."  He wrote to inspire the weary Colonists and started with the words: "These are the times that try men’s souls..." (1).  The Colonists rallied and fought valiantly.  In 1855, Walt Whitman composed a poem called "A Noiseless Patient Spider" in his book "Leaves of Grass."  He compared his soul to a spider unreeling a thread of gossamer (2).  It is hard to be sure what Whitman had in mind but the poem is still a classic.  In the New Testament we find a famous phrase in the gospel of Mark [8:36].  Jesus of Nazareth allegedly said to his disciples, "For what shall it profit a man, if he shall gain the whole world, and lose his soul?" (3) [From the Greek - Psyche]  Do you suppose this soul is any different from the two previous "souls?"  In the Old Testament [or if you prefer, The Hebrew Bible] there is a verse [I Samuel 18:8] which states that, "The soul of Jonathan was knit with the soul of David" (4).  What kind of "Souls" were these?  In modern times Sigmund Freud, an outspoken Atheist, deliberately used the word "soul" (German - Seele) in all his works when he wished to refer to the "mind." (5).  How can anyone be sure if any, or all, or none of the statements above refer to the same kind of soul?  We have hardly begun to scratch the surface of this problem and already its complexity is obvious.

People in sinking ships send out radio signals in the hope of having someone save their souls.  Others sneeze and expect you to bless their souls.  Souls, some say, are able to rejoice in Heaven and suffer in Hell.  They can be lost, found, sold [to the Devil] and reincarnated. These days we have soul music and soul food and we are just beginning. Does it really make any difference if we think of ourselves as two components such as "Body and Soul?"  Or if we believe we that we consist of one piece, not divided at all?  In other words, are we Monists or Dualists?  Are the age old philosophical controversies of Mind and Matter, which so engrossed our ancestors, still unresolved today?  It used to be said, "What is Mind?  Never matter!"  And, "What is Matter? Never mind!"  To many people it really did matter.  Maybe to some, it still does.

Let us start with the word "Soul" and ask the obvious question.  What is it?  What does it do?  Where does it come from?  How many different kinds exist?  Is it indestructible?  Is it reusable?  Can it feel pleasure or pain?  Who believes in the soul and why?  Is man the only living creature believed to have a soul?  What about animals?  What about vegetables?  Why not even minerals?

None of these questions can be tackled seriously until we go back one step further and ask whether such an entity as the soul actually exists at all?  Is the soul real, or is it a pseudostructure, that is something fictitious and imaginary?   The word "Soul" certainly exists but it has almost as many definitions as it has users.

Before we can even begin to examine the concepts which lie within and behind the word "Soul" we must first list some of the words, in other languages, which translate into the English word Soul.   Next, we will attempt to decipher the origins and meanings of these various words. Finally, we will try to deduce the reasons why such terms exist, and what purposes, if any, they serve.  Then, perhaps, we can begin to evaluate the "soul concept" and start to think about its nature, even its actuality.

Soul Language

The Random House Dictionary, second edition [1987] says the following: SOUL, noun. 1. The principle of life, feeling, thought and action in humans, regarded as a distinct entity separate from the body, the spiritual part of humans as distinct from the physical part.  2. the spiritual part of humans regarded in its moral aspect, or as believed to survive death and be subject to happiness and misery in a life to come. Random House has 14 definitions in all.

There are many words translated into English to describe the souls of man and beast.  The Romans used the feminine word ANIMA for "Soul." It is from this root that we get words like Animal and Animated.  The Greeks had the word PSYCHE which meant "Soul" or "Life."  They also had the word PNEUMA that meant "Spirit."  Psyche and Pneuma are in exclusive use in the New Testament Greek and translated as "Soul" in English. From the root word "Psyche" we have derived modern words like Psychic, Psychology and Psychopath.  From "Pneuma" we get such terms as pneumonia and pneumatic.

In the Hebrew Bible the word NEPHESH translates as "Life" and "Soul." In part of the Hindu scriptures called the Vedantas "pure spirit" is known as ATMAN.  Is there a thread which runs through all of these words?  Indeed, there is!  The key concept is BREATH.  The Breath, or Spirit, (from the Latin - spirare - to breathe) is what distinguishes inspiration from expiration and the living from the dead.  The Anima, or Breath, (from the Latin - Animare - to quicken, or endow with breath) and the Greek word Anemos, meaning Wind.  It is simply this that differentiates the animate from the inanimate.

The Pneuma, so the Greeks thought, was the Spirit, or Breath of life. In fact, the Gnostics, a collection of Christian, Mandaean and Jewish groups, believed there were three different types of soul.  The lowest were Hylic - made of wood.  Next came Psychic souls and finally those souls of the highest order called the Pneumatics (Spiritual.) (6) The Greeks knew of the "Breath-soul" which they called the Psyche.  The word was interchangeable for Life, Soul or Spirit.  In Homeric times it was also thought of as "the Breath of Life." (7)  Plato described it as the organ of thought, or the organ of Nous [or Noos.]  The word PSYCHE comes originally from the Greek verb "Psychein" - which means to breathe, or blow.

In the 2nd Century AD the Roman author Apuleius wrote 11 books called "The Golden Ass."  It tells the tales of a man turned into an ass.  In books 4,5 and 6 we read of a living soul in the shape of a beautiful girl, an incarnate butterfly, called Psyche (Life).  She is married to a living God, Eros (Love) (8) who only visits her at night.  It was the ultimate love story of the union between soul and body.  People liked the legend so much they accepted it as literally true.

Words tend to change their meanings as centuries roll by.  For example, as late as the 16th century, all Psychologists were priests who worked exclusively within the Church.  As their name implied, they specialized in getting a person’s soul (psyche) into heaven.  These days, Psychology covers a much wider field than "Soul doctoring."  In fact, many Psychologists spend their time trying to help patients overcome the so-called "hell" which they experience on earth!  Carl Jung, a 20th century psychologist, wrote a book called "Modern Man in Search of a Soul."(9)  Unfortunately it is merely a collection of lectures, the interesting title was added later!

Of particular interest is the Hebrew word Nephesh which was used to describe the soul by ancient Jews.  It was translated throughout the Septuagint (the Greek version of the Old Testament) as Psyche, however it is not at all certain that both words denoted the same concept.  The word Nephesh (10) originally meant to breathe and the noun means - neck or throat open for breathing - hence the breath of Life.  The Accadians had the word "Napashu" meaning - to get breath.  The Arabic word was "Nafusa" - to breathe or sigh.  It is no accident that the words "Navel" and "Naval" sound alike - they both needed air to get them going! Finally, the word Atman, from the Upanishads written in Sanskrit, refers to the individual soul or inner essence of man.  It originally meant "Breath."  To this very day we find in the German language the verb "to breathe" is still the same.  The word is - Atmen!

We can reason from these striking similarities that most, if not all, of the words for soul and spirit have evolved originally from the life-giving qualities of breath and breathing.

The Wisdom of Ancient Times

Let us next examine the so-called Wisdom of Ancient Times.  The Ancients Greeks were undoubtedly experts when it came to the soul.  It all started with a legendary character by the name of Orpheus.  He was of Thracian origin and the son of the Muse Calliope and the god Apollo.  He wrote music and poetry.  His works are reputed to be the basis of a religion called Orphism.  The worship of Dionysus was the main theme of the Orphic Mysteries with their secret rituals involving fertility and the immortality of the soul.  (11)

Pythagoras (c582-507 BC) was an early Greek philosopher.  Some people say he got his ideas from the Egyptians.  No matter.  He founded a religious brotherhood based on the belief that numbers were involved in all relationships.  He and his followers also believed in the transmigration of souls.  They practiced purification rites in order to be released from reincarnation.  Their ideas about souls were derived from the Orphic Mysteries. (12)

Democritus, (c460-370 BC) a philosopher, was one of the first people to describe the concept that all matter is made up of atoms.  He was a mechanist and a materialist.  It is to his credit that he did not believe in supernatural intervention.  Nevertheless, he was of the strange opinion that the human soul was made up of "spherical atoms." The reason for this was because they are the kind best suited for motion.

Diogenes of Apollonia (5th century BC) was another philosopher.  He thought that souls consisted mostly of air.  Why air?  Well, because it was the element which was finest in grain and hence best suited for motion.

Anaxagoras (c500 -428 BC) was the person who allegedly taught Socrates. He is the Philosopher who developed the concept of the "NOUS" the all-pervading mind which caused the formation of the world.  He thought that the soul was the source of motion without moving itself, he considered it to be a "first principle."

Empedocles (c495 - 435 BC) Greek poet and philosopher, said that there were two opposing forces of nature -"Harmony" and "Discord."   He also was of the opinion that matter was indestructible.  His views on the soul were that it "knew" all "natural things."  In those days "natural things" were earth, air, fire and water.  However, Empodocles introduced two other extrinsic principles, namely "Love" and "Strife." The soul, said he, was a combination of all 6!

Next, we come to Plato (c427 - 347 BC) who believed in the existence of a "world soul" - a Demiurge (Greek - Worker for the people) or Creator - which made the physical universe.  He described Psyche as the organ of thought, which was equivalent to the organ of Nous, which is the mind. Plato also believed in a Rational soul which was immortal.  The reason for its immortality was because ideas are known to be indestructible. The soul of man knew both "Natural" and "Changing" things, plus "Changeless" things such as Numbers, Ideas and Geometricals.  From this he concluded (rather like Pythagoras before him) that since the soul knows "all things" it must be a number!  He went on to elaborate on which actual number it was!

Ancient authorities disagreed about whether the soul had incorporiety, that is, a lack of substance.  Plato and Anaxagoras described a soul with no material or body.  While Democritus and Diogenes thought it was rarefied, but still a body of some kind.

Aristotle (384 - 322 BC) had other ideas. (13)  He wrote a famous treatise called "De Anima" ["On the Soul."]  He did not believe that the soul was separate from the body.  He thought that body and soul were part of the same individual.  If the soul has motion, said Aristotle, elaborating on the ideas of Anaxagoras, there must be both a Mover and a moved.  The Mover was the soul and the moved was the body.  According to Aristotle all previous views of the soul had failed!

One should not be too hasty to be disrespectful of a man like Aristotle.  His wisdom has been revered for more than 2000 years, by Greeks, Jews, Christians and Muslims alike.  He was considered the philosopher, par excellence, of the Christian Middle Ages.  There is no denying he wrote an incredible amount.  He knew a great deal about biology, very little about astronomy, but he was an authority on the soul.  He even knew on which day a human embryo obtains its ensoulment! It is 40 days for the male and 80 to 90 for the female!!  St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) believed Aristotle and explained to the faithful that an embryo first has a vegetative soul, then a sensitive soul and finally a human one arrives.

The Greeks were not the first to describe the concept of a "Soul."  Some earlier cultures had even gone so far as to describe two souls in each human being.  The Ancient Chinese, for example, believed that man had a lower sensitive soul which disappeared at death, and another soul, the "Hun."  It was this rational principal which survived.  The Hun was what people worshipped after their ancestors died.  (14)

The ancient Egyptians also had two souls, the Ba and the Ka.  The Ka was the breath, which survived death but stayed close to the body.  The Ba was the spiritual part of a person which went on to the region of the dead.  (14)

Eastern Religions

The next subjects to examine are the Eastern Religions.  Most, but not all, of the major religions have some belief with regard to the soul. Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism are notable exceptions.  Hinduism, is the Western term for religious beliefs based on the Veda, the Brahamanas and the Bhagavad-Gita.   The Hindus have developed an extensive soul theory.  Modern Hindu philosophy, which depends more on the writing in the Upanishads, has further modified the doctrine of a Universal Soul. In the course of time, they believe that all individual souls will be reunited.

Brahmanism, which is a branch of the Hindu faith, developed a technique called Yoga.  This is the method that hastened the reunion of individual souls with the Universal Soul.  It is accomplished by the practice of spiritual and physical exercises.

The Yogis teach that one lifetime might not be long enough to perfect your soul, so they developed the idea of a principle called "Karma" - which in Sanskrit means "Making."  According to the theory of Karma, it is necessary to be reborn either as another person, or an animal.  This novel concept has been referred to as Metempsychosis or, in everyday language, the Transmigration of Souls.

It is believed that Karma is being reworked and modified in some way, throughout the life of an individual soul.  It all depends on how well or badly its owner, the body, uses it.

Karma is believed to have different levels according to the religion involved.  It deals with individual souls in Hinduism and an undifferentiated stream of being in Buddhism, but The Buddha himself taught the doctrine of Anatman or denial of a permanent soul. In Jainism there are similar beliefs.  The Jainist basic doctrine is that everything in the universe is eternal and that it takes nine incarnations to attain Nirvana (Sanskrit for "Annihilation").  In all cases a person’s Karma is the accumulated effect of their activities during a lifetime.  It is interesting to note that these beliefs did not always generate an empathy for their fellow man.  They were directly responsible for the Hindu caste system and the brutal treatment of the so-called Untouchables who were presumed to have been sinful in their prior existences.  Furthermore, some people believed that Devils are nothing more than souls which are incomplete or which have been badly treated.

Judaism

The first reference to soul in the Hebrew Bible is found in Genesis 1:20 where the text refers to the following: "And God said, Let the waters bring forth abundantly the moving creature that hath LIFE..." and the footnote adds, Hebrew - soul.  In verse 30 of the same chapter we read: "And to every beast of the earth, and to every fowl of the air, and to every thing that creepeth upon the earth, wherein there is LIFE..." and once again the footnote adds, Hebrew -a living soul. 

It is not until Genesis chapter 2 verse 7 that we see the word used in the English language for the first time: "And the Lord God formed man of the dust of the ground and BREATHED into his nostrils the BREATH of life; and he became a living SOUL."  It looks as though all the animals in the Biblical Creation received souls of their own.  What is even more surprising, animals got their souls before we got ours!

The Hebrews believed that Man does not have a "soul" but that he is a "soul."  This soul has two aspects; one which is visible and one which is invisible (15)

Jewish belief was never big on souls.  According to Judaica, the huge Jewish Encyclopedia: "Jewish Theology has no clearly elaborated views on the relationship between body and soul, nor on the nature of the soul itself.. Apart from philosophical and kabbalistic literature on the subject."

One notable exception among Jews were the Pharisees. They had a Hellenistic leaning and believed that after death the souls of the righteous entered new bodies and those of the wicked were left in Sheol suffering punishment. (17)

In medieval times the soul was depicted in Jewish thought as the "Rider of a steed" - "Captain of a ship" - "Governor of a state" but the soul was still often considered to be a "Stranger on earth" that was "yearning for its supernatural home." (16)

There is much evidence that the rabbis were strongly influenced by Aristotle’s works, especially De Anima (On the Soul) and also by the Arab scholars such as Avicenna (980-1037) and Averroes (1126-1198) (18)

Christian Eschatology

Eschatology is the name given to the theories of death and the hereafter.  It is a highly sophisticated subject.  In early times Christian belief was very similar to that found in the Old Testament. It changed.  According to the 1985 edition of Encyclopaedia Brittanica, Christian concepts of the body-soul dichotomy actually originated with the ancient Greeks.  They were introduced to Christian theology in the fourth century by St. Gregory of Nyssa (d.394) and by St. Augustine. (354-430) (19)

In the New Testament every reference to the "soul" in the Gospels was translated from the Greek word "Psyche" which, at that time, meant "Life."  As for example, "Even as the Son of man came not to be served, but to serve, and to give his life (psyche) as a ransom for many."(Matt 20:28)  In the garden of Gethsemane, Jesus grieves because his "soul (psyche) was exceedingly sorrowful"(Matt 26:38)  In Luke, 12:19, you can read "And I will say to my soul, "Soul, you have ample goods laid up for many years; relax, eat, drink, and be merry."  If you check the Greek you will find the word Psyche twice!  The last words on the cross Jesus cries, "Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit (from the Gk -pneuma)" (Luke 23:46).  (20)

Maybe the ideas of Jesus became garbled as the years went by?  Maybe they were influenced by St. Paul?  It’s hard to be sure.

These days the churches have built a complex system for souls and salvation.  We see the remarkable Roman Catholic beliefs about Limbo and Purgatory, where souls are purged!  These are the places where souls are allegedly put on "hold" while they await the prayers, and payments for prayers, and masses from the living.  Almost all Christians believe in immortality of the soul, while in the Apostles Creed we find belief in the resurrection of the body too!

Soul Searching

Before we get bogged down in the history of what various religions have done with the Soul, perhaps it would be best to try approaching the subject from a different direction.  Let us do some "Soul searching." Imagine that we are primitive individuals living, let us say, in pre-Christian times.  Our lives would be short and our time would be spent in hunting, fishing and just surviving.  We would be faced with countless mysteries such as the seasons, birth, death, illness and natural disasters about which we understood very little.  As a result we would probably be devout believers in magic.

Our bodies would be intriguing to us since most of the time we could only see part of them.  Occasionally we would catch a glimpse of our unseen other self reflected from a shining surface such as that of water.  During the day we would watch our shadow following us around, yet another self about which we knew nothing but from which we could not be separated.  It was certainly all very mysterious!

There must have been a time in history when we first became aware that we could think and reason.  A time when we first became conscious of ourselves and realized the consciousness of others.  It was only when we became fully cognizant of our individual and collective existence that our consciousness began at a personal level.

At first we might have been conscious of some of our thoughts during the day, our wishes, our needs and our memories.  In time, we would develop a sense of selfhood, and the beginning of personality.  Not much perhaps, but at least an inkling of individuality.  But when we slept what dreams would come to haunt us?  It was then that we would visit unknown places, speak with the living and the dead and personally experience another world.  At least, it would have seemed to be real to us.

It could be that with the dawn of consciousness, the concept of soulhood came into being.  Much has been written on the subject of consciousness but nothing compares with Julian Jaynes’ book - "The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind."(21)  Bicameral is the term used to denote the division and activity of the left and right sides of the brain.  Jaynes asserts that consciousness evolved from bicamerality about 600 BC.  At the time of Homer’s Iliad, consciousness, as we now know it, simply did not exist!

Even though we have outgrown many of our primitive beliefs, our sense of soulhood is still with us.  These days the scientists and materialistic philosophers have all but abolished the soul.  They have proved that it is nothing more than a relic from the past but that doesn’t stop most people from believing in it.  In a way, it may be no different from the manner in which physicists have abolished the body.  How real is that body of yours when you examine it?  Very real, you say!  Skin and bones and muscles and blood and all the rest.  Bang your fist on the table and ask a scientist if you have proved anything.  One assumes the reality of the body in spite of the fact that it is made up of cells, which are made up of molecules which are made up of atoms, which are made of particles, which are made of...who knows what?  At least it is made up of something!  The soul, bless it if you wish, is made up of nothing! As a wag once said, "Is the Soul any greater than the hum of its parts?"  I have my doubts!

Is the soul another word for the mind?  Is it what the mind is to the brain?  Maybe.  Is it another word for thinking?  If it were, would that make the soul an actual entity?  Is breathing to the lungs not in essence the same as thinking to the brain?  Does that make breathing an entity?  Does breath go on after death as a spirit?  If not, why not? The word Spirit means breath and it might be comforting to believe that our breath rejoins the great World Breath after our demise for others to live on.  Breath everlasting, world without end.  Amen!  [Whatever that means.]

What about the stomach and bowels?  Oliver Cromwell thought that they were the seat of passion and he used expressions like, "Praise God, and keep your bowels open!" and "I beseech you in the bowels of Christ!" Think about it.  If digestion is to the gastro-intestinal tract what breathing is to the lungs and thinking is to the brain, then digestion, too, is an entity and should survive the body!   Why not?  It is perfectly logical.  Ask yourself again - Is the soul any greater than the hum of its parts?  Of course not!

Here’s another problem.  Are there entities which cannot be classified as either animal, vegetable or mineral?  For example, music, happiness, beauty, courage and love?  What about religion, worship, sin, Satan and God?  Are these merely concepts?  Are they descriptions of qualities which are the by-products of animals, vegetables and minerals?  Are concepts the same as entities?  Are functions the same as entities? Come to think of it, exactly what are entities?  These are really tough questions!

Here we are at the end of the 20th century and the so-called "immortal soul" is quite a popular topic of conversation.  It is of interest to note that the Judeo-Christian model is losing out to the oriental version.  The average person seems to have no trouble in believing that they have a soul located somewhere or other, which is entirely different from their body and that it will survive them after death.  The youth of America having become disenchanted with their local religions have adopted part of the far eastern philosophies.  Almost everybody can talk in detail about their Karma and yours and many otherwise intelligent people seriously consult with so-called "experts" about their "past lives."  Past life readers have become an actual profession in the United States today and they are treated with the utmost respect by the media.  The CIA recently admitted spending $20 million as part of their budget on "psychic research!"  Have we gone mad?

ere we are at the end of the 20th Century and Spirituality is back.  Is that good or bad?  Doubtless it is a source of comfort to some people. The thought of surviving bodily death is better for them than thinking that they have but one life to live, one chance to do good, one brief spell of joy and an eternity of nothingness.  Maybe it helps?  Maybe not!

On the other hand, maybe it makes some people indifferent to suffering here on Earth?  It hardens their hearts and makes them contemptuous of humanity.  Suppose there is a volcano, an earthquake, a meteor, or a tidal wave which causes tens of thousands of people to die?  So what? Isn’t everything part of a divine plan?  The pious are apt to say, "Perhaps God needed them?  Who knows, maybe their work was done?"  In the neo-oriental view, it was probably good for their "Karma." Such belief systems enable people to take the shuttle explosion in their stride.  Hurricanes are no longer chaotic weather systems.  According to clerics, like Pat Robertson, storms respond to prayer!  Ayatollahs claim that earthquakes are not just due to the shifting of tectonic plates, they are the work of Satan!  Lots of people believe that AIDS is not just a virus, it is a divine punishment for sin!  For many people the Universe is part of a magical system!  Let us consider the possibility that magical thinking of all kinds is no longer valid.  Magic is the science of the jungle.  It has lost touch with current reality. Is this a time in history when we should be encouraging the art of "Doublethink?"  Is there a clear and present danger in embracing archaic dualistic philosophies?  Is this a time to promote the immortality of our so-called souls?  We now have the ability to involve the whole planet in thermonuclear destruction.  Huge amounts of money are spent in perfecting instruments of warfare.  We are adrift in uncharted seas where one mistake could sink our ship of state and every other ship as well.  We live in a Global Village at the dawn of the third millennium and we are confronted by a lot of new problems.  Our world is divided by nationalism and militarism on a scale never seen before.  We are confronted daily by the horrors of terrorism, the specter of poverty, the rising birthrate.  Nations spend vast sums of money developing weapons of mass destruction while individuals are left to defend themselves against drug trafficking and organized crime.  Unfortunately there is nothing, absolutely nothing, in the myths and legends of the past to provide us with the knowledge of how to deal with our present day crises.  On the contrary, there is much to lull us into complacency.

The most dangerous people on the face of the planet today are magically oriented.  Look at the gurus, the astrologers and the clergy!  Look at their power!  Especially those whose job it is to advise the politicians and the military!  It is a terrifying thought to realize that the future of mankind is being manipulated by hands like theirs.  It is hard to say which is more dangerous and which is more absurd - faith in the magic of religion, belief in the immortality of the soul, or an ongoing trust in an obviously helpless god.  The answer is - all of the above.

In summary, it could be said that the body and soul are all one.  Both are figures of speech to describe the organism and the selfhood or life within it.  Nothing in the light of modern knowledge indicates that there is the slightest trace of evidence in favor of the separate existence of a human soul, but is anyone listening?   The majority appear not be interested.  People may differ in their religious and philosophic beliefs but most would concur with Marlowe’s Dr. Faustus [1604] when he said: "Had I as many souls as there are stars, I’d give them all for Mephistophilis." (22)

Bibliography

1. The Crisis.  Number 1.  Opening lines
2. Leaves of Grass. (1855) "A Noiseless Patient Spider."
3. Mark 8:36
4. I Samuel 18:1
5. Freud and Man’s Soul.  Bruno Bettelheim  (1982)
6. Gnosticism (speech) by John Heighway to Philosophy club
7. Encyclopedia Brittanica 15th Ed. (1985) Vol 27 p487
8. The Golden Ass of Apuleius.  Robert Graves trans (1951)
9. Modern Man in Search of a Soul.  Carl Jung. (1933)
10. Interpreter’s Bible p230
11. Orphism - Columbia Encyclopedia 2nd edition (1950) p1454
12. Pythagoras - Ibid - p1625
13. New Catholic Encyclopedia (1967) under Soul p447-448
14. Ibid  under Soul, Human p450
15. Ibid under Soul, Human, Immortality of p467
16. Judaica. (1971) Body and Soul.  p1166
17. Judaica. (1971) Soul.  p172
18. Ibid  p173
19. Encycl. Brittanica.  15th Edition (1985) Vol 11 p25
20. Greek and English Lexicon of the New Testament (1850)
21. The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind. Julian Jaynes  (1976)
22.The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus.  Christopher Marlowe (1604) Act 1,Scene IV._